The Sophists, masters of rhetoric and relativists of truth

The Sophists were a highly influential philosophical movement in ancient Greece, particularly active during the 5th century BCE.

Although they did not form a unified school and often held diverse positions, they shared some distinctive traits:

1. Paid Teachers: Sophists were itinerant educators who offered lessons in rhetoric, dialectics, and other subjects for a fee, targeting young aristocrats aspiring to succeed in politics.
2. Relativism: They questioned the existence of absolute and objective truth, asserting instead that truth is relative, depending on individual and cultural perspectives.
3. Focus on Humanity: Humans and society became their primary subjects of philosophical inquiry, with particular attention to politics and social life.

The Key Sophists and Their Ideas

• Protagoras: Considered the father of relativism, he famously declared, “Man is the measure of all things,” signifying that truth is subjective and dependent on individual perceptions. He was also interested in politics and emphasized the importance of laws and social institutions for communal welfare.
• Gorgias: Known for his radical skepticism, Gorgias denied the existence of being, non-being, and knowledge, claiming that everything is mere appearance and illusion. His rhetoric aimed to persuade rather than seek truth.
• Hippias of Elis: A polymath who prided himself on his extensive knowledge, he delved into etymology, genealogy, and literary criticism, advocating the idea that virtue is acquired through study and education.
• Antiphon: Focused on politics and law, he sought to reconcile natural law (based on justice) with positive law (created by humans), emphasizing reason and moderation.
• Thrasymachus: Defined justice as “the advantage of the stronger,” arguing that laws are tools of domination by the powerful over the weak.
• Callicles: Another proponent of the “might makes right” philosophy, he distinguished between nature (where the law of the strongest prevails) and human law, which he saw as suppressing natural instincts.

The Relativism of Protagoras vs. Other Sophists

Protagoras is often considered the archetype of relativist Sophists. His famous statement, “Man is the measure of all things,” underscores the idea that truth is subjective and reliant on individual perceptions.

However, not all Sophists shared the same degree of relativism. For instance, Gorgias took relativism to its extreme by denying the very existence of reality, whereas others held more moderate positions.

Key differences include:

• Degree of Relativism: Protagoras is viewed as the most relativist, while figures like Hippias had more eclectic views.
• Determinants of Truth: For Protagoras, truth primarily stemmed from individual perception, while other Sophists considered social and cultural factors.
• Purpose of Relativism: Protagoras emphasized human subjectivity, whereas others used relativism for rhetorical or political aims.

Sophists vs. Presocratic Philosophers

The Sophists and Presocratic philosophers mark two distinct phases in Greek thought, but with notable connections:

• Shift in Focus: While the Presocratics focused on nature and its fundamental principles (e.g., water, fire, air), the Sophists shifted attention to humanity, society, and human knowledge.
• Dialectical Method: Both groups employed dialectics, but for different purposes—Presocratics sought to understand nature, while Sophists used it for persuasion and critique.
• Relativism vs. Absolutism: Presocratics often sought universal principles explaining the cosmos’s order, whereas Sophists introduced relativism, arguing that truth is shaped by individual and cultural contexts.

Socrates and the Sophists

Socrates and the Sophists, though contemporaries, represented fundamentally different approaches to philosophy:

1. Philosophical Purpose: The Sophists viewed philosophy as a tool for political and social success, teaching rhetorical and persuasive skills. Socrates, by contrast, saw philosophy as a quest for truth and self-knowledge.
2. Methodology: Sophists used a dialectical method that relied on contradiction and linguistic manipulation to defeat opponents. Socrates employed the maieutic method, fostering constructive dialogue to uncover truth.
3. Relativism vs. Absolutism: The Sophists championed relativism, claiming truth is subjective, while Socrates believed in an objective truth attainable through reason.

Influence of the Sophists on Athenian Politics

The Sophists had a profound impact on Athenian politics:

• Training Young Politicians: Their education prepared young aristocrats for political life by teaching persuasion and dialectical techniques.
• Relativism and Skepticism: Their relativism undermined trust in traditional institutions and values, fostering uncertainty and skepticism.
• Democracy: By emphasizing rhetoric and persuasion, they strengthened Athens’ democratic system, where public speaking was crucial for political success.

Legacy and Criticism of the Sophists

The Sophists faced criticism from figures like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle for their:

• Relativism and Skepticism: Accused of undermining traditional values and making knowledge uncertain.
• Materialism: Seen as materialists focused on worldly success and power.
• Manipulation of Language: Criticized for using rhetoric to deceive rather than seek truth.

Despite these critiques, their contributions were significant:

1. Centrality of Humanity: They redirected philosophical inquiry from nature to human society.
2. Relativism: Challenged the notion of absolute truth, paving the way for critical thought and tolerance.
3. Rhetoric: Advanced techniques of persuasion and argumentation still relevant today.

Their legacy persists in philosophy, social sciences, and politics, influencing areas like relativism, cultural critique, and rhetorical strategies.